By Kristine C. Harper
For much of the first half of the twentieth century, meteorology was more art than science, dependent on an individual forecaster's lifetime of local experience. In Weather by the Numbers, Kristine Harper tells the story of the transformation of meteorolo
Vedi indiceThe Genesis of Modern Meteorology
Kristine C. Harper
The MIT Press
Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
© 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Harper, Kristine.
Weather by the numbers : the genesis of modern meteorology / Kristine
C. Harper.
p. cm. — (Transformations : studies in the history of science and technology)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-262-08378-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Meteorology—History. 2. Weather forecasting—History. I. Title.
QC855.H374 2008
551.50973—dc22
2007039860
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Index
Abbot, Charles Greeley, 23, 24
Aberdeen Proving Ground, 96, 138–142,
152, 160
Ad Hoc Committee (Group) for
Establishment of a Joint Numerical
Weather Prediction Unit, 201–208,
212–215, 218
Ad Hoc Committee on Numerical
Weather Prediction, 199–201
Ad Hoc Committee on Numerical
Weather Prediction (JMC/NWP),
215–217
Agriculture, 14–19, 22, 25, 28–30, 47,
50–52, 57–60, 64, 71, 88
Air Coordinating Committee, 217
Air Force
Air Weather Service, 9, 72, 88, 97, 102,
110–114, 147, 170–180, 183, 198, 206,
207, 227, 232, 235
Cambridge Geophysical Research
Directorate, 4, 9, 144–151, 166,
171–182, 207–209, 214–217
computerized weather prediction and, 97
culture of, 226–229, 233
Joint Numerical Weather Prediction
Unit and, 206–218
meteorological curriculum and, 72–83
meteorological services of, 77
meteorologists, 75
Meteorology Project and, 9
patronage, 135, 155–157
Weather Agency, 235
Weather Bureau and, 156, 157, 195, 198
weather reconnaissance, 220
Air mail, 18, 44
Air mass analysis, 29–31, 41, 46, 52, 97
Alt, Franz, 216
American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 58
American Astronomical Society, 59
American Chemical Society, 59
American Expeditionary Force, 42
American Geophysical Union, 12, 62
American Meteorological Society, 6, 52,
53, 58–61, 65, 83–86
American Physical Society, 6, 59
American-Scandinavian Foundation, 39
American Society of Civil Engineers,
27–30, 35
Ĺngström, Anders Knut, 191
Army Air Service, 18, 44, 53
Army Ordnance Department, 96, 138,
139, 158, 159
Arnold, Henry H. “Hap,” 72
Association of American Geographers,
59
Astronomy, 11, 24–26, 49–53, 56, 62
Atmospheric Analysis Laboratory, Air
Force, 146, 176–179
Atmospheric circulation, 62–64, 92, 96,
100–103, 106–110, 113, 123–125, 159,
170, 188, 194, 233, 234
300 ■ Index
Atmospheric fl ow, 110, 117, 159–161
Atomic bomb, 92, 99
Atomic Energy Commission, 216, 225
Aviation, 2, 6, 12, 16–21, 28, 36–38,
42–47, 56–58, 65, 72–74, 78, 79, 87,
88, 226, 237
Aydelotte, Frank, 98, 102–104
Balloons, weather, 19, 31, 43–45, 92,
177, 234
Bankhead-Jones Act, 57, 64
Baroclinicity, 130, 135, 174
Barotropic assumption, 129
Barotropic atmosphere, 125, 130, 133,
161, 165
Bergen Geophysical Institute, 29, 39
Bergen School of Meteorology, 5, 30, 32,
35–41, 44–46, 56–58, 61–63, 66, 72,
73, 87, 97, 112
Berggren, Roy, 191, 192
Berkofsky, Louis, 177
Bigelow, Julian, 213, 216
Bjerknes, Jacob, 29, 72, 73, 87, 103, 118,
135, 145
Bjerknes, Vilhelm, 29, 39, 61, 87, 112, 145
Blocks, atmospheric, 106, 139, 140,
159, 164
Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory,
36–38, 50, 56, 57, 65
Bolin, Bert, 143, 150, 159, 160, 163, 164,
173, 181, 192
Boundary assumptions, 214
Boundary conditions, 125, 141, 144,
163, 205, 215
Bowen, Harold G., 98
Bowles, Edward L., 78, 79, 82, 83
Bowman, Isaiah, 29, 30
British Air Ministry, 118
British Meteorological Offi ce, 37, 40,
162, 171, 209
Brooks, Charles F., 12, 50, 59, 60
Brunt, David, 153, 171
Bundgaard, Robert, 114
Bureau of the Budget, 203, 204, 229
Bureau of the Census, 202–204
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, 22, 33
Bureau of Education, 51
Bureau of Experiment Stations, 22, 33
Bureau of Mines, 83
Bureau of Standards, 33, 98, 109, 114,
119, 163, 204, 216
Byers, Horace R., 7, 35, 57, 72, 73, 84, 85,
89, 94, 95, 137, 144
Cahn, Albert, 105–109, 114, 115
California Institute of Technology, 6, 7,
14, 50, 56, 57, 67, 71–73, 77, 110
Canadian Meteorological Offi ce, 54
Carnegie Institution, 11
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 103
Charney, Jule Gregory, 4, 5, 8, 112, 113,
116–118, 122–144, 152–166, 174–185,
189, 192, 195, 196, 199, 204, 210,
216, 223
Chemical Warfare Service, 25, 43–45, 80
Church, Philemon E., 86
Civil Aeronautics Act (1938), 71
Civil Aeronautics Administration, 74
Civil airways, 12, 19
Civil Service, 34
Clark University, 53, 54
Classifi ed data, 79, 230
Climate and climatology, 21–27, 43,
52–63, 76–78, 81
Coast and Geodetic Survey, 12, 83
Cold War, 4, 14, 21, 122, 228, 236
Compton, Karl T., 28, 29, 70
Computer Project, Institute for
Advanced Study, 3, 7, 8, 104, 107,
151, 210
Computers, electronic
BESK, 164, 165, 192, 209, 210
EDVAC, 97
ENIAC, 9, 96, 100–102, 107–109, 119,
138–144, 148–152, 155–160, 165, 166,
170, 193
Index ■ 301
IAS, 123, 138, 141–144, 155, 158, 165,
166, 172, 192–196, 202, 209, 213
IBM 701, 199–206, 214–219, 222, 227
IBM 704, 205, 206, 227
Remington-Rand ERA 1103, 204, 205,
213
Computers, human, 2, 139
Condon, Edward U., 98
Congress, 14, 22, 31–34, 66, 95
Conservation laws, 116
Control of nature, 1, 4, 5, 92, 99, 103
Coriolis force, 116, 124, 152
Cornell University, 52, 53, 56
Cox, Henry J., 17, 18
Cressman, George P., 206–208, 214–220,
221, 228
Crowley, Karl, 44
Culnan, Robert, 205, 208
Cyclogenesis, 193, 194
Cyclones, 64, 96, 129, 172, 199
Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the
Promotion of Aeronautics, 39, 54, 57
Daniels, Josephus, 36
Davies, Thomas V., 143, 160
Davis, William Morris, 59
Decker, Fred, 75
De Florez, Luis, 98
Department of Agriculture, 4, 12–14,
22–24, 28, 29, 34–36, 41, 47, 57,
70, 237
Department of Commerce, 10, 34,
202–205, 218, 237
Department of Defense, 201, 212, 218
Deutscher Wetterdienst, 167, 209
Dropsondes, 197, 220
Dust Bowl, 64
Eady, Eric T., 136, 141, 163–165, 189–192
Earth sciences, 11, 12, 49, 67
Earth-system approach, 225, 234, 235
Eaton, Max, 155
Eckert, J. Presper, 96, 100
Edison, Charles, 70
Ekman, Vagn Walfrid, 133
Eliassen, Arnt, 8, 116–123, 129, 133–137,
143, 150, 156, 161, 164, 171, 173, 189,
190
Elliott, Robert D., 105–109, 112
Elsasser, Walter M., 101, 107
Energy
conversion of, 167–170, 176
dispersion of, 126, 129, 159
dissipation of, 98, 135
propagation of, 117, 126, 130, 141, 194
sinks, 212
sources, 194, 212
Equations
difference, 113
dynamic, 107, 116
Heisenberg-Lin, 106
hydrodynamical, 39, 114, 121, 124
thermodynamical, 39
primitive, 100, 124, 152, 234
Errors
computational, 113, 114, 165, 189
data, 125, 193
coding, 141, 160, 165
machine, 141
model, 158, 173, 214
in results, 143, 154, 189
Espy, James Pollard, 61
Etkes, Perez, 59
European Centre for Mid-range Weather
Forecasting, 10
Ewing, Ann, 212
Facsimile weather broadcast, 184, 197,
201, 226–229
Fassig, Oliver L., 30, 35
Ference, Michael, 73
Ferrel, William, 61
Filters, 8, 116, 117, 123, 124
Fjřrtoft, Ragnar, 136, 141–144, 150–155,
158, 167, 173, 189, 192
Flame regiments, 21
302 ■ Index
Fleet Numerical Meteorology and
Oceanography Center, Navy, 235
Fleet Numerical Weather Facility,
Navy, 229
Fog, 38, 56, 57, 65, 92
Forecasting and forecasts
accuracy of, 30, 99, 142, 154, 169, 188,
219, 231
economic benefi ts of, 6, 25, 30, 53, 60,
61, 238
extrapolation methods in, 96
fi re-weather, 17, 33
fl ying, 18, 37
fruit-frost, 17, 33
highway, 18
long-range, 23–26, 35, 57, 63, 64, 72,
76, 81, 82, 103, 106, 148, 178, 185,
195, 210, 212
military, 18, 21, 28, 36–47, 73–89, 138,
139, 147, 148
marine, 18
no-skill, 26
objective, 35, 109–111, 126, 134, 158,
173, 182, 183, 193–196, 200, 201, 215,
219, 220, 231
probabilities, 14, 17
seasonal, 25
statistical, 14, 17, 29, 34, 42, 57, 63, 64,
97, 144
subjective, 9, 108, 109, 121, 151, 154,
158, 169, 177, 181, 184, 193–195, 199,
215, 220, 231
Forecast length, 188, 209
Fort Monmouth, 13, 44–47, 51
Freeman, John C., 123, 141, 142, 143,
159, 160
French national weather service, 21, 190
Frictional forces, 105, 133–135, 146, 161,
169, 170, 204
Fuld Hall, 109
Fulks, J. R., 157
Fuller, Otha, 219
Fultz, Dave, 144
Gambo, Kanzaburo, 192
Gates, Lawrence, 216
Geography
climatology and, 53–57
instruction in, 49, 53–57, 83
meteorology and, 11, 53–55, 66
Geological Survey, 18, 25, 83
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory,
232, 233
Geophysics, 8, 11, 12, 22, 29, 119, 122,
145–147, 152
George Washington University, 40, 56
Gilbarg, Norma, 160
Gilchrist, Andrew, 163, 192, 216
Global Atmospheric Research Program,
234
Global Weather Experiment, 234
Goldstine, Herman H., 107, 204,
205, 213
Graphical methods, 63, 112, 167
Gravity waves, 123, 124, 153
GRD Spectrum, 177
Great Depression, 6, 29–34, 46, 54, 87
Gregg, Willis Ray, 24, 30, 69, 70
Grid points, 115–117, 130, 140–144,
158, 163–167, 193, 197, 201, 205, 209,
222, 232
Gutenberg, Beno, 29, 71, 95
Harvard Computation Laboratory, 112
Harvard University, 11, 36, 39, 49, 50,
53, 57–59, 107
Haurwitz, Bernhard, 56, 87, 101, 106,
107, 118, 145
Henry, Joseph, 14
Hinkelmann, Karl H., 164–166, 209
Hřiland, Einar, 173
Holmboe, Jörgen, 72, 87, 95, 111, 112
Holzman, Benjamin G., 111, 156, 157
Houghton, Henry G., 77, 86, 94, 95
Houston, David Franklin, 36
Hovmöller, Ernest, 166, 190, 191
Hubert, William, 164–166, 175
Index ■ 303
Humphreys, William J., 32, 50
Hunt, Gilbert, 101, 107–109, 118, 119,
123, 143
Huntington, Ellsworth, 60
Hurricanes, 63, 92, 97–100, 106, 107,
167, 234
Hutchins, Robert Maynard, 79
Hydrology, 15, 60
IBM, 96, 160, 194
Ice and icing, 57, 65, 235
Imperial College, 153, 171
Institute for Advanced Study
Computer Project, 3, 98, 104, 107–109,
123, 138, 141–144, 155
Meteorology Project, 7, 101–104, 113,
151, 161, 165, 166, 172, 176, 177, 181,
192–196
Institute for Tropical Meteorology, 81
Instruments, meteorological, 13, 15,
19–22, 44–47, 51, 97
Insurance industry, 6, 19–21, 33
Internal waves, 127
International Business Machines, 96,
160, 194
International cooperation, 4, 152, 234
International Meteorological Institute,
Stockholm, 150, 160, 163, 164
Isentropic conditions, 64, 163, 193
Jacobs, Woodrow C., 54, 55
Japanese Meteorological Agency, 192
Jardine, William Marion, 24
Jet stream, 135, 144, 159–161, 164, 190
JNWPU. See Joint Numerical Weather
Prediction Unit
Joint Chiefs of Staff, 9, 76, 81, 157,
195, 198
Joint Meteorological Committee, 9, 76,
157, 195, 198, 201, 204–206, 215–218
Joint Numerical Weather Prediction
Unit, 9, 188, 189, 200–202, 205–218,
219, 221, 222, 225–229, 232–235
Journal of Meteorology, 86, 112, 122,
126–133, 153
Kaplan, Joseph, 72, 77, 95
Kites, weather, 19, 20, 31
Kleinschmidt, Ernst, 164
Krick, Irving, 57, 72, 77
Kuo, H. L., 128, 159
Landsberg, Helmut, 179–182
Langmuir, Irving, 210
Leahy, William D., 70
Leppard, H. M., 73
Licensing of meteorologists, 83–85
Lichtblau, Stephen, 35
Lightning, 56, 57
Little, Delbert, 222, 223
Los Alamos National Laboratory, 108,
124, 154, 160
Magnetic drum, 169, 189, 197, 209
Manhattan Project, 91, 236
Marvin, Charles F., 23–30, 33, 34, 47,
62, 63
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
aviation ground school, 36
“Big Five” and, 7, 50, 73
graduates of, 35, 72, 97, 133, 171,
172, 179
Haurwitz and, 56, 101, 107
meteorology program, 6, 14, 39, 40, 44,
55–57, 67, 71, 109, 148
Meteorology Project and, 131, 166
Navy aerology and, 54
Rossby and, 8, 58, 71, 122, 136
World War II meteorology training,
74
Willett and, 39, 40, 56
Mauchly, John W., 96, 97, 100–102
McAdie, Alexander G., 36–38, 65
Medical Department, Army, 14
Meisinger, Clarence LeRoy, 56
Meteorograph, 41, 45, 66, 67
304 ■ Index
Meteorology
academic programs in, 2, 6, 7, 11, 49,
50–59, 72–77, 93
applied, 13–21
art-to-science transition of, 1, 2, 7, 35,
61, 84, 121
business and, 14–18, 26, 30, 47, 50–52,
58–60, 88
career prospects in, 40, 46, 52, 190
health and, 58–61
marine, 14, 18, 33, 36–38, 60, 63, 226
oceans and, 18, 31–33, 58, 64, 78, 81,
97, 129, 133, 197, 220, 227, 233–236
primary-school education in, 53
professionalization of, 5–7, 50–52,
58–69, 77–79, 83–89
secondary-school education in, 32, 53
synoptic, 8, 39, 57, 101, 102, 106, 115,
118, 121–123, 128, 131, 143, 144, 162,
163, 166, 184, 185, 188–192, 196, 206,
207, 223, 236, 237
theoretical, 71, 72, 101, 102, 108, 118,
136, 206, 234
theory development in, 10, 101, 132, 154
tropical, 78, 81, 82, 87, 116
Meteorology Project, 3–9, 104–198,
225–239
Micrometeorology, 81
Millikan, Robert Andrews, 11, 29, 30, 42,
51, 70
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Modeling, scientifi c, 3, 238, 239
Models, meteorological
advective, 143, 162
assumptions made for, 100, 116, 121,
124, 128, 129, 135, 153, 163, 169,
174–176, 183, 189, 204, 214, 233
atmospheric, 3–5, 9, 45, 109
barotropic, 8, 126, 130, 138–144,
151–158, 167, 168, 183, 189, 192
baroclinic, 9, 130, 143, 157, 162, 168,
169, 183, 189, 192, 193, 227
climate, 10, 233, 234
equivalent barotropic, 130, 168
multi-level, 9, 227
multi-parameter, 164
non-linear barotropic, 134
primitive equation, 143, 233, 234
quasi-geostrophic, 152, 162
quasi-linear, 205
three-dimensional, 144, 154, 158,
162–168, 174, 177, 185, 204, 205
two-dimensional, 125, 135, 139, 140,
144, 149, 158, 162, 165, 176, 185
2˝-dimensional, 162, 165
Moffett, William A., 28
Montgomery, Raymond B., 101, 107
Monthly Weather Review, 32, 59, 65
Moore, Henry Ludwell, 26
Murray, Robert B., Jr., 205
Namias, Jerome, 106, 133, 134, 142, 143,
157, 166
National Academy of Sciences, 70
National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, 94
National Center for Atmospheric
Research, 233
National Centers for Environmental
Prediction, 235
National Defense Research Committee,
82
National Meteorological Center, 229,
230
National Research Council, 28, 29, 42,
49, 112
National Science Foundation 94, 238
National styles, 4, 5, 8
National Weather Analysis Center, 208,
216, 217
National Weather and Crop Bulletin, 17
Naval Aerological Service, 35–41, 46, 47,
66, 70
Naval Bureau of Aeronautics, 28
Naval Observatory, 83
Index ■ 305
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 112
Naval Postgraduate School, 38, 189, 229
Naval Weather Service, 102, 232, 235
Navy Offi ce of Research and Invention,
98, 102
Navy
airship accidents, 28, 71
and aviation, 12
Chemical Warfare Unit, 81
and JNWPU, 226–229, 233
and marine forecasting, 18
meteorological education in, 54, 57,
66, 86
meteorological services of, 5, 12, 13, 29,
30, 33–41, 46, 70, 79
meteorologists working for, 6, 32, 60,
66, 75–79, 164–166
operational numerical weather
prediction and, 9, 10, 174–176,
183–198, 207, 208, 212–218, 223
patronage, 5, 98–106, 113, 119,
155–157, 170
upper air stations, 31
Weather Bureau and, 18–21, 81, 156, 157
women and, 74
Neiburger, Morris, 101
New York University, 6, 7, 14, 50, 55–57,
67, 71–77, 94, 101, 107–110, 113–115,
118, 126, 131, 171
Newton, Chester, 164–166, 178, 181
Newton, Harriet, 166
Norwegian Forecasting Service, 118
Norwegian Meteorological Institute,
118, 136
Norwegian Meteorological Offi ce, 135
Numerical analysis, 91, 114, 125, 141,
207
Numerical Prediction Project, Air Force,
176–182, 214
Numerical weather prediction
development of, 101–186
precursors to, 14, 36, 61, 65, 76, 94–100
operational, 187–223
skeptics of, 104, 105, 114, 115,
128–132, 139, 140, 153, 154, 239
Oberholtzer, W. E., Jr., 215
Objective analysis, 126, 158, 183, 193,
196, 200, 201, 215, 219, 220
Observations
surface, 2, 18, 21, 31, 51, 66, 82, 96, 138,
170, 197, 223
upper-air, 2, 5, 18–21, 30–32, 41–47,
55–57, 61, 66, 82, 92, 96, 108, 109,
127, 138, 170, 196, 197, 220–223, 230,
234
Observation stations, 2, 27, 35, 138,
234
Oceanography, 12, 86, 145, 229, 235
Offi ce of Air Research, 171
Offi ce of Naval Research, 4, 7, 94, 104,
111, 119, 136–139, 148, 149, 155–159,
171, 183, 212, 213, 222, 236
Offi ce of Scientifi c Research and
Development, 82
Operation Overlord, 88
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 136, 137, 141
Oslo Institute of Meteorology, 115, 171
Ozone, 24, 73, 82, 235
Pacifi c Ocean, 36–38, 78, 82, 129, 211,
219, 220, 227
Page, Larry, 24
Palmén, Erik, 139
Panofsky, Hans A., 94, 101, 106, 107,
113–115, 118
Paris Peace Conference (1919), 25
Pekeris, Chaim L., 101, 105, 106, 109,
112, 113, 121
Periodicities, 26, 63
Pershing, John Joseph “Black Jack,” 42
Petterssen, Sverre, 74, 87, 88, 118,
172–175, 179–185
Phillips, Norman A., 160, 163, 164,
179–181, 189–192, 209, 233
Physical sciences, 87, 88, 144, 147, 236
306 ■ Index
Physics
academic departments of, 6, 49–56, 72,
73, 83
as discipline, 11, 23, 35, 39, 49, 61, 91,
103, 112
and earth sciences, 12, 19, 22, 26, 37,
63, 71, 72, 113, 114, 194, 210
and meteorological training, 3, 38–40,
51–55, 58, 66, 74–78, 84, 87, 103, 104,
185
Platzman, George, 128, 133, 134,
139–141, 144, 152, 158–160, 163, 196,
204, 216
Poiseuille fl ows, 106
Polar front theory, 35, 57, 58, 73, 103
Potential temperature, 162, 163
Precipitation
and agriculture, 22, 26
climatology and, 19, 25, 63, 81
and fi re, 17
observation of, 14, 197
prediction of, 154, 169, 188, 201, 205,
211, 235
and streamfl ow, 18
Princeton University, 189, 233
Queney, Paul, 102, 105, 108, 109,
112–115, 121, 143
RCA Princeton Labs, 1, 7, 97, 98, 101, 107
Reed, Charles D., 29
Reichelderfer, Francis Wilton, 1, 3, 7, 29,
30, 38–41, 44, 66, 70–72, 85, 93–95,
98–105, 108, 109, 114, 115, 136–142,
152, 155, 166, 167, 180, 183, 190,
194–196, 202–205, 213, 218, 228,
233, 237
Remington-Rand Corporation, 204, 205,
213
Research and Development Board, 122,
156
Research and Development Command,
Air Force, 172, 176, 183
Research funding
government, 32, 64, 91, 94, 151,
236–238
private, 11, 17, 94, 95, 161
Research schools, 4, 5, 8, 122, 123, 150,
155
Revelle, Roger, 119
Rex, Daniel F., 4, 102–106, 139, 143, 149,
175, 183, 189, 198, 199, 213
Richardson, Lewis Fry, 2, 61, 100,
106–109, 112–114, 117, 124, 222
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 28, 37, 44, 73
Rockets, 91, 147, 197
Rossby, Carl-Gustav, 3–8, 39–41, 55–58,
69–89, 93, 97, 100–106, 110, 121–146,
150–156, 159–166, 170–178, 187, 191,
192, 206, 209, 210, 216
Ruch, Paul E., 77
Salaries of scientists, 12, 33, 52, 102, 118,
190
Sarle, C. F., 96, 97
Scandinavian Tag Team, 3, 8, 121, 150,
161
Science Advisory Board, 28, 29, 35, 46,
47, 97
Scorer, Richard S., 153, 154
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 12
Secrecy of meteorological data, 236
Senter, Oscar O., 179
Severe weather, 16, 99
Shaw, Sir William Napier, 51
Shuman, Frederick G., 162, 163, 219
Sieg, Paul Lee, 75, 86
Signal Corps and Signal Service
Meteorological Services, Army, 5, 6,
13, 21, 33, 41–47, 50, 59, 60, 66, 72,
197
Smagorinsky, Joseph, 137, 140–143,
158–163, 166, 167, 184, 190, 195–198,
204, 205, 209–211, 233
Smagorinsky, Margaret, 158
Smithsonian Institution, 14, 23, 61, 62
Index ■ 307
Solar radiation, 22–24, 57, 62, 64, 100,
101
Solberg, Halvor, 112
Sound waves, 123, 124, 153
Spilhaus, Athelstan F., 55, 77
Squier, G. O., 42
Stability
of atmospheric features, 103, 107, 110,
126, 127, 139–141, 163
computational, 113, 114, 117, 128,
152–154, 158, 169
Starr, Victor P., 72, 73, 101, 113, 145, 166
Statistics, 14, 64, 233
Steering level, 97, 117, 154, 187, 188, 220
Stickles, Albert L., 189
Stimson, Henry L., 78, 79
Sunspots, 64
Sutcliffe, Reginald C., 133, 143, 153
Sverdrup, Harald U., 11, 103
Swedish Meteorological and
Hydrological Institute, 39, 191
Taylor, George F., 198
Teller, Edward, 103
Tellus, 122, 123, 126–131, 144, 150, 154,
155, 158, 164
Temporal scales, 117, 231
Texas A&M University, 42, 43, 50
Thanksgiving Day Storm (1950), 9, 168,
193
Thompson, Philip D., 4, 9, 109–119, 124,
125, 145–151, 155, 170–186, 209, 214
Topography, 63, 134, 161, 205
Touart, Chankey, 171–185
Trakowski, Albert, 145
Turbulence, atmospheric, 39, 42, 101,
106, 107, 112, 161, 211
University of California, Los Angeles,
7, 52, 72, 73, 77, 95, 101, 109–112,
116–118, 131, 135, 148, 178, 181
University of Chicago, 7, 8, 72–75,
79–81, 86, 94, 100, 101, 105, 110–113,
116–118, 122, 128–133, 136, 140, 141,
144, 150–152, 160–164, 175, 179–182
University of Leipzig, 39, 56
University of New Mexico, 86
University of Oslo, 117
University of Pennsylvania, 96
University of Southern California, 54
University of Stockholm, 39, 122, 216
University of Washington, 75, 86, 131
University Meteorological Committee,
7, 69, 74–78, 83–86, 94, 95
U.S. Weather Research Program, 235
USS Akron, 28, 71
USS Shenandoah, 37
Utah Agricultural College, 52
Van Mieghem, Jacques, 139
Verifi cation of data and predictions, 9,
40, 115, 148–151, 160, 188, 197, 200,
215, 219, 237
Von Kármán, Theodore, 1, 52, 103
Von Neumann, John, 1–4, 7–10, 91,
98–119, 124–132, 136–141, 142, 146,
149–162, 166, 174, 179–185, 191,
194–196, 199, 204, 210–216, 223–225,
233, 237
Von Neumann, Klari, 140, 155
Vuorela, Lauri, 165
Wallace, Henry A., 7, 24, 28–30, 47, 70,
71, 76
Wallace, Henry Cantwell, 28
War Department, 12, 32, 41, 77–80, 99
Ward, Robert DeCourcy, 6, 39, 49, 50
Warner, Edward P., 38, 39
Waterman, Alan T., 156
Weapon, weather as, 5, 99
Weather Bureau
appropriations for, 10, 12, 22, 33–35,
45, 46
cooperative stations, 15, 19
education and training, 31–35, 69–72, 84
Extended Forecast Section, 137, 157
308 ■ Index
Weather Bureau (cont.)
fi rst-order stations, 34
functions, 14
organization, 15, 33
personnel shortages, 32, 162
political infl uences on, 30, 70
regional offi ces, 15, 16
research, 12–15, 22–32, 35, 61, 62,
69–71, 95, 157, 190, 195, 237, 238
research funds for, 7, 22, 29
Navy “desk,” 19, 38
Numerical Forecasting Group, 195
river and fl ood services, 14, 15, 18
salaries, 19, 33, 34, 52, 190
second-order stations, 19
and seismology, 11, 15, 25, 29
and volcanology, 15, 25
Weather Bureau–Air Force–Navy analysis
center, 156, 157, 166, 182, 185, 195,
199–202, 208, 216, 217
Weather control, 1, 4, 5, 92, 97–99,
103–105, 210
Weather services
duplication of, 21, 36, 73, 76, 200
European, 45
Weather typing, 57, 76, 81
Wexler, Harry, 4, 35, 73, 97–109, 114,
115, 118, 133, 134, 142, 146–148, 152,
155–157, 162, 166, 179–184, 194,
202–205, 208, 212, 213, 216
Willett, Hurd C., 39, 56, 106
Wilson, Woodrow, 21
Wind
data on, 14, 19, 64, 109, 115, 197, 211
forecasts for, 21, 28, 38–43, 176, 177,
212
models and, 116, 117, 130, 137, 173,
176, 234
research on, 30, 64, 110
at steering level, 97
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
101, 164, 209
Woolard, Edgar W., 56, 61–63
World War I, 18, 21, 36, 41–43, 50, 51
World War II, 69–89
Worthy, James C., 202, 203
Wulf, Oliver, 73
Wurtele, Morton, 181
Yates, Donald N., 88
Yeh, Tu-cheng (Ye Dezheng), 126, 127
Zimmerman, Donald, 77
Zworykin, Vladimir K., 1, 4, 97–99, 104,
105, 111